The global burden of hypertension preventable by urban greenness

  • Mills, K. T. et al. Global disparities of hypertension prevalence and control: a systematic analysis of population-based studies from 90 countries. Circulation 134, 441–450 (2016).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaduganathan, M., Mensah, G. A., Turco, J. V., Fuster, V. & Roth, G. A. The global burden of cardiovascular diseases and risk: a compass for future health. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 80, 2361–2371 (2022).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Wierzejska, E. et al. A global perspective on the costs of hypertension: a systematic review. Arch. Med. Sci. AMS 16, 1078–1091 (2020).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (NCD-RisC) Worldwide trends in hypertension prevalence and progress in treatment and control from 1990 to 2019: a pooled analysis of 1201 population-representative studies with 104 million participants. Lancet 398, 957–980 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauwelinck, M. et al. Residential urban greenspace and hypertension: a comparative study in two European cities. Environ. Res. 191, 110032 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Bu, Y. et al. Association of greenspace with hypertension in adult: a systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 34, 2556–2577 (2024).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Furuyama, A., Kanno, S., Kobayashi, T. & Hirano, S. Extrapulmonary translocation of intratracheally instilled fine and ultrafine particles via direct and alveolar macrophage-associated routes. Arch. Toxicol. 83, 429–437 (2009).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Markevych, I. et al. Exploring pathways linking greenspace to health: theoretical and methodological guidance. Environ. Res. 158, 301–317 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, M. R. The role of oxidative stress in the cardiovascular actions of particulate air pollution. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 42, 1006–1011 (2014).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Gostimirovic, M. et al. The influence of climate change on human cardiovascular function. Arch. Environ. Occup. Health 75, 406–414 (2020).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsunetsugu, Y. et al. Physiological and psychological effects of viewing urban forest landscapes assessed by multiple measurements. Landsc. Urban Plan. 113, 90–93 (2013).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeng, Y. Q. et al. Exposure to neighborhood greenness and hypertension incidence in adults: a longitudinal cohort study in Taiwan. Environ. Health Perspect. 132, 37001 (2024).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Grazuleviciene, R., Andrusaityte, S., Gražulevičius, T. & Dėdelė, A. Neighborhood social and built environment and disparities in the risk of hypertension: a cross-sectional study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 17, 7696 (2020).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Rice, M. & Hancock, T. Equity, sustainability and governance in urban settings. Glob. Health Promot. 23, 94–97 (2016).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Mindell, J., Ison, E. & Joffe, M. A glossary for health impact assessment. J. Epidemiol. Community Health 57, 647–651 (2003).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, B. L. & Fielding, J. E. Health impact assessment: a tool to help policy makers understand health beyond health care. Annu. Rev. Public Health 28, 393–412 (2007).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Lock, K. Health impact assessment. BMJ 320, 1395–1398 (2000).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Fensholt, R. et al. Greenness in semi-arid areas across the globe 1981–2007 — an Earth Observing Satellite based analysis of trends and drivers. Remote Sens. Environ. 121, 144–158 (2012).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Bille, R. A., Jensen, K. E. & Buitenwerf, R. Global patterns in urban green space are strongly linked to human development and population density. Urban For. Urban Green. 86, 127980 (2023).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Nawrath, M., Elsey, H. & Dallimer, M. Why cultural ecosystem services matter most: exploring the pathways linking greenspaces and mental health in a low-income country. Sci. Total Environ. 806, 150551 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, B.-Y. et al. Community greenness, blood pressure, and hypertension in urban dwellers: The 33 Communities Chinese Health Study. Environ. Int. 126, 727–734 (2019).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Huang, B. et al. Greenness-air pollution-physical activity-hypertension association among middle-aged and older adults: evidence from urban and rural China. Environ. Res. 195, 110836 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Jia, X. et al. Cardiovascular diseases in middle aged and older adults in China: the joint effects and mediation of different types of physical exercise and neighborhood greenness and walkability. Environ. Res. 167, 175–183 (2018).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Urban green spaces and health (WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2016); https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/345751

  • Kario, K., Okura, A., Hoshide, S. & Mogi, M. The WHO Global report 2023 on hypertension warning the emerging hypertension burden in globe and its treatment strategy. Hypertens. Res. 47, 1099–1102 (2024).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, X. et al. Vegetation greenness in 2023. Nat. Rev. Earth Environ. 5, 241–243 (2024).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Huang, C. et al. Mapping the maximum extents of urban green spaces in 1039 cities using dense satellite images. Environ. Res. Lett. 16, 064072 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Lafortezza, R. & Sanesi, G. Nature-based solutions: settling the issue of sustainable urbanization. Environ. Res. 172, 394–398 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. 2018 Revision of World Urbanization Prospects. https://www.un.org/en/desa/2018-revision-world-urbanization-prospects (2018).

  • DiPette, D. J. et al. Standardized treatment to improve hypertension control in primary health care: the HEARTS in the Americas Initiative. J. Clin. Hypertens. (Greenwich) 22, 2285–2295 (2020).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Whelton, P. K. et al. ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: executive summary: a Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation 138, e426–e483 (2018).

    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Onyemelukwe, G. C. et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in adult general out-patient clinics in Nigeria: a country analysis of the Africa and Middle East Cardiovascular Epidemiological (ACE) study. Afr. Health Sci. 17, 1070–1081 (2017).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Piepoli, M. F. et al. European Guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: the Sixth Joint Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice (constituted by representatives of 10 societies and by invited experts)Developed with the special contribution of the European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation (EACPR). Eur. Heart J. 37, 2315–2381 (2016).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Zupo, R. et al. Scientific evidence supporting the newly developed one-health labeling tool ‘Med-Index’: an umbrella systematic review on health benefits of Mediterranean diet principles and adherence in a planeterranean perspective. J. Transl. Med. 21, 755 (2023).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, D., Laatikainen, T. & Farrington, J. Implementing essential interventions for cardiovascular disease risk management in primary healthcare: lessons from Eastern Europe and Central Asia. BMJ Glob. Health 5, e002111 (2020).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Debrah, C., Owusu-Manu, D.-G., Kissi, E., Oduro-ofori, E. & Edwards, D. Barriers to green cities development in developing countries: evidence from Ghana. Smart Sustain. Built Environ. 11, 438–453 (2022).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Venter, Z. S., Shackleton, C. M., Van Staden, F., Selomane, O. & Masterson, V. A. Green apartheid: urban green infrastructure remains unequally distributed across income and race geographies in South Africa. Landsc. Urban Plan. 203, 103889 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Satoh, M. et al. Age-related trends in home blood pressure, home pulse rate, and day-to-day blood pressure and pulse rate variability based on longitudinal cohort data: the Ohasama study. J. Am. Heart Assoc. 8, e012121 (2019).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, W. et al. Age-related changes in the risk of high blood pressure. Front. Cardiovasc. Med. 9, 939103 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, D.-T. & Lee, Y.-S. The age-related trend in blood pressure and the prevalence of hypertension in Korean adults. J. Life Sci. 22, 148–155 (2012).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Luo, Y.-N. et al. Associations of greenness surrounding schools with blood pressure and hypertension: a nationwide cross-sectional study of 61,229 children and adolescents in China. Environ. Res. 204, 112004 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Dzhambov, A. M., Markevych, I. & Lercher, P. Greenspace seems protective of both high and low blood pressure among residents of an Alpine valley. Environ. Int. 121, 443–452 (2018).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Klompmaker, J. O. et al. Associations of combined exposures to surrounding green, air pollution, and road traffic noise with cardiometabolic diseases. Environ. Health Perspect. 127, 087003 (2019).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, A. & White, N. D. Time in nature: a prescription for the prevention or management of hypertension. Am. J. Lifestyle Med. 17, 476–478 (2023).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruize, H. et al. Urban green space: creating a triple win for environmental sustainability, health, and health equity through behavior change. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 16, 4403 (2019).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Bikomeye, J. C. et al. Resilience and equity in a time of crises: investing in public urban greenspace is now more essential than ever in the US and beyond. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 18, 8420 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Garber, M. D. et al. Impact of native-plants policy scenarios on premature mortality in Denver: a quantitative health impact assessment. Environ. Int. 178, 108050 (2023).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Rouse, J. W., Haas, R. H., Schell, J. A. & Deering, D. W. Monitoring vegetation systems in the Great Plains with Earth Resources Technology Satellite. In Proc. 3rd Earth Resources Technology Satellite Symposium, Greenbelt (eds Freden, F. C. et al.) 309–317 (NASA SP-351, 1973).

  • Weier, J. & Herring, D. Measuring vegetation (NDVI & EVI). NASA https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/MeasuringVegetation (2000).

  • Gregorio, A. D., Jansen, L. J. M. & Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Land Cover Classification System: Classification Concepts and User Manual: LCCS (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2005).

  • Giannico, O. V. et al. The mortality impacts of greening Italy. Nat. Commun. 15, 10452 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Kondo, M. C. et al. Health impact assessment of Philadelphia’s 2025 tree canopy cover goals. Lancet Planet. Health 4, e149–e157 (2020).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Baccini, M. et al. Green space exposure and mortality in the Florentine plain: preventable deaths at the census tract level and uncertainty analysis. Preprint at Research Square https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7968253/v1 (2025).

  • Iyer, H. S. et al. Neighborhood greenness and burden of non-communicable diseases in Sub-Saharan Africa: a multi-country cross-sectional study. Environ. Res. 196, 110397 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Xiao, X. et al. Greenness around schools associated with lower risk of hypertension among children: Findings from the Seven Northeastern Cities Study in China. Environ. Pollut. 256, 113422 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Jendrossek, M. et al. Residential air pollution, road traffic, greenness and maternal hypertension: results from GINIplus and LISAplus. Int. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 8, 131–142 (2017).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, S. C. et al. Neighborhood greenness and chronic health conditions in Medicare beneficiaries. Am. J. Prev. Med. 51, 78–89 (2016).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Wells, G., Shea, B. & O’Connell, J. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for assessing the quality of nonrandomised studies in meta-analyses. The Ottawa Hospital Research Institute https://ohri.ca/en/who-we-are/core-facilities-and-platforms/ottawa-methods-centre/newcastle-ottawa-scale (2014).

  • Melon, M. et al. Nature on our doorstep: how do residents perceive urban parks vs. biodiverse areas?. Landsc. Urban Plan. 247, 105059 (2024).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarkar, C., Webster, C. & Gallacher, J. Residential greenness and prevalence of major depressive disorders: a cross-sectional, observational, associational study of 94,879 adult UK Biobank participants. Lancet Planet. Health 2, e162–e173 (2018).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, J. & Yu, K. F. What’s the relative risk? A method of correcting the odds ratio in cohort studies of common outcomes. JAMA 280, 1690–1691 (1998).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, J. P. T. & Thompson, S. G. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat. Med. 21, 1539–1558 (2002).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Begg, C. B. & Mazumdar, M. Operating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias. Biometrics 50, 1088–1101 (1994).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Egger, M., Davey Smith, G., Schneider, M. & Minder, C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ 315, 629–634 (1997).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Duval, S. & Tweedie, R. Trim and fill: a simple funnel-plot–based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics 56, 455–463 (2000).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hu, Y., Ji, J. S. & Zhao, B. Restrictions on indoor and outdoor NO2 emissions to reduce disease burden for pediatric asthma in China: a modeling study. Lancet Reg. Health West. Pac. 24, 100463 (2022).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Burden of Disease from Ambient Air Pollution for 2016: Description of Method (World Health Organization, 2018); https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/air-quality-database/aqd-2018/aap_bod_methods_apr2018_final.pdf?sfvrsn=30ac0d62_3.

  • Global Burden of Disease Collaborative Network. Global Burden of Disease Study 2021 (GBD 2021) Socio-Demographic Index (SDI) 1950–2021 (Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), 2024).

  • Joinpoint Regression Program. https://surveillance.cancer.gov/joinpoint/.

  • Handbook on Health Inequality Monitoring: With a Special Focus on Low- and Middle-Income Countries (World Health Organization, 2013).


  • Source link
    Exit mobile version